Foreign Nouns

     Foreign nouns form their foreign plural by changing  their endings as follows:
 
                     1. "is" changes to "es".
                     2. "um" changes to "a".
                     3. "us" changes to "i".
                     4. "a" changes to "ae".
                     5. "on" changes to "a".
                     6. "x" changes to "ces".
                     7. "eau" adds       "x."

                     Example:  analysis, analyses.
                     Example:  datum, data.
                     Example:  alumnus, alumni, (masculine)
                     Example:  alumna, alumnae, (feminine)
                     Example:  criterion, criteria.
                     Example:  index, indices.
                     Example:  bureau, bureaux.

     In a number of instances, however, the English plurals are commonly used instead of the foreign plurals.

           Examples:

                                 SINGULAR                                     PLURAL
                                    formula                                          formulas
                                    memorandum                                 memorandums
                                    index                                             indexes
                                    referendum                                    referendums
                                    bureau                                           bureaus
                                    tableau                                          tableau s
                                    trousseau                                      trousseau s

Irregular Nouns and Foreign Nouns

     Irregular Nouns. Some nouns form heir plural by making changes within the words.

     Examples:

                                       SINGULAR                                        PLURAL
                                           child                                                 children
                                           foot                                                  feet
                                           goose                                               geese
                                           madam                                             mesdames
                                           man                                                  men
                                           mouse                                              mice
                                           ox                                                    oxen
                                          woman                                              women

     Some nouns, even though they end in "s," are always singular.

     Examples:

                                      SINGULAR                                       SINGULAR
                                        arthritis                                               mathematics
                                       economics                                            molasses
                                        ethics                                                    news
                                        logistics                                               politics

     Some nouns, regardless of the final letter, are always plural.
     
     Examples:

                                       PLURAL                                        PLURAL
                                       acoustics                                         scissors  
                                       athletics                                           spectacles
                                       cattle                                               statistics
                                       goods                                              tactics
                                       gymnastics                                       thanks
                                       proceeds

     Other nouns use the same form for both the singular and the plural.

     Examples:
   
                                   SINGULAR                                   PLURAL
                                     corps                                             corps
                                     deer                                               deer
                                     gross                                              gross
                                     means                                            means
                                     series                                             series
                                     sheep                                             sheep                           

Plural Forms of Nouns

     General Rule. The plural of nouns are most commonly formed by the addition of  "s".

     Example:
                             SINGULAR                                     PLURAL
                                door                                              doors
                                obligation                                       obligations
                                pencil                                             pencils
                                ruler                                               rulers

     Nouns Ending in "x," "ch",  "sh," or "ss" The plural of nouns ending in "x," "ch", "sh," or "ss" The plural of nouns ending or "x," "ch", "sh",  or "ss" are form by the addition of  "es."

                            SINGULAR                                    PLURAL
                                 box                                              boxes
                                 church                                         churches
                                 bush                                            bushes
                                 business                                       businesses

     Nouns Ending in "y". When a final "y" is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed by the addition of "s". But when the final "y" is preceded by a consonant, the "y" changes to "i" and "es" is added.

     Example:

                           SINGULAR                                  PLURAL
                             attorney                                        attorneys
                             delay                                            delays
                             company                                      companies
                             courtesy                                       courtesies

     Exception: Proper names ending in "y", Mary, Mary; Henry Henry's.

     Compound Nouns.
     Compound  nouns written with hyphens form their plurals by the addition of "s" to the principal word.

     Examples:

                           SINGULAR                                   PLURAL
                            court-martial                                  courts-martial
                            editor-in-chief                                editors-in-chief
                            hanger-on                                      hangers-on
                            son-in-law                                     sons-in-law

     In some instances both parts of a compound noun are used with the plural

      Examples:
       
                           SINGULAR                                    PLURAL
                            manservant                                      menservants
                            Knight Templar                               Knights Templars

     Nouns Ending in "t" or "f" or "fe". The plurals of most nouns ending "f" or "t" are formed by the addition of "s".

                           SINGULAR                                    PLURAL
                             cuff                                                  cuffs
                             belief                                               beliefs  
                             dwarf                                              dwarfs
                             handkerchief                                    handkerchiefs
                             chef                                                 chefs
                             safe                                                 safes
   
    But in some nouns ending in "f" or "fe" the "f" changes to "v" and the word ends with "ves".

     Example:

                            SINGULAR                                  PLURAL
                                 calf                                             calves
                                 half                                             halves
                                 knife                                           knives
                                 leaf                                             leaves
                                 life                                              lives
                                 loaf                                             loaves
                                scarf                                            scarves (also scarfs)
                                shelf                                            shelves
                                thief                                             thieves
                                wharf                                           wharves
                                wife                                             wives
                                wolf                                             wolves

     Nouns ending in "o".  The plurals of nouns ending in "o" preceded by a vowel are formed by the addition of the letters "s".

     Examples:

                         SINGULAR                                PLURAL
                             cameo                                       cameos
                             duo                                           duos
                             folio                                           folios
                             trio                                             trios

      The plurals of most of other nouns associated with music, are formed by the addition of the letters."s".

     Examples

                       SINGULAR                                PLURAL
                          albino                                          albinos
                          banjo                                          banjos
                          dynamo                                      dynamos
                          Eskimo                                       Eskimos
                          kimono                                       kimonos
                          memento                                     mementos
                          piano                                          pianos
                          soprano                                      sopranos
                          tobacco                                      tobaccos
                          zero                                            zeros

     The plurals of some nouns ending in "o" preceded by a consonant  are formed by the addition of "es".

      Examples:

                         SINGULAR                              PLURAL
                           buffalo                                      buffaloes
                           calico                                       calico s
                           cargo                                       cargoes
                           desperado                               desperadoes
                           domino                                    dominoes
                           echo                                        echoes
                           embargo                                  embargoes
                           hero                                         heroes
                           mosquito                                  mosquitoes
                           motto                                       mottoes
                           mullato                                    mullatoes
                           negro                                      negroes
                           potato                                     potatoes
                           tomato                                    tomatoes
                           tornado                                   tornadoes
                           torpedo                                   torpedoes
                           veto                                        vetoes
                           volcano                                   volcanoes
                                                         

Subordinate Clauses in Complex Sentences

     The subordinate clause in a complex sentence my be a noun clauses, an adjectival clause, or an adverbial clause.

     Noun Clause
     A noun clause may be used as the subject of the sentence, the predicate noun of a verb, or as the direct object of a verb.
     Here are some noun clauses used as:

     1. Subject of a sentence.
        That man is unjust is a fact.
        That President Quezon loved his country is beyond doubt.
        That Rizal could have saved himself and did not proved his devotion to duty.
        That knowledge is power  cannot be denied.

     2. Predicate Noun 
         "Life is what we make it".

         Rizal's martyrdom was what the Filipinos needed to stir them to consciousness.
         This outcome was what i expected. 
         The United Nations was what the world needed then to promote brotherhood.

      3. Direct object of a verb
          We all know that death  is  inevitable.

OBJECT OF PREPOSITION

     The preposition shows the relationship between its object and some other word or words in the sentences.

                            shade of a tree

                            water in the bucket

                            rain on the roof

APPOSITIVE

     A noun is in the objective case if it is in appositive with another noun in the objective case.

     He arrested Vic, the politician's son.

     The wedding quest listened to the Doctor, and old man.

Objective Case and Direct Object of a Verb

     A noun is said to be in the objective case when it act as the direct object of a verb, the indirect object of a verb, the object of a preposition, or as an appositive  of another word in the object case. (Object implies the person or thing receiving an action: John hit Mary. Mary,  the object, receives the action that John, the subject initiates.)

DIRECT OBJECT OF A VERB

     To determine the word or words acting as object of the verb ask whom? or what?  after the verb. The answer yields the object.

     She approved my reason.

     She approved what? The object of approved is reason.

INDIRECT OBJECT OF A VERB

     Beside naming the direct object,  the person or thing receiving an actions, a verb may also have an indirect object  the person for whom or to whom, or the thing for which or to which an action is performed. To determine the indirect object (which usually comes  before the direct object) as to whom? or for whom? for what? after the verb.

     The professor taught his students grammar.

     The professor taught to whom?  The answer, [his] student,  yields the indirect object.

PRONOUNS

     A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. Note how monotonous a sentence can be if the noun is repeated because in its place no pronoun is used. 

     Example:

     1. Pete lost Pete's watch yesterday when Pete was wrestling with Pete's cousin.

     2. The children were told by the children's mother to study the children's  lesson carefully.

     3. In the garden, the earthworm is looking for the earthworm's  food to keep the earthworm's healthy so that the earthworm's can do the earthworm's work well.

     Instead of the boldened nouns, pronouns may be used to improve the sentences. The boldened words below are pronouns.

     1. Peter lost his book yesterday when he  was wrestling with his cousin.

     2. The children were told by their mother to study  their lesson carefully.

     3. In the garden, the earthworm is looking for its food to keep it healthy so that it can do its work well.

     4. We who are your  friends will help you ad your mother.

     The words (1) he, his (2) their,  (3) its, it, and we, you, your, who are called pronouns. They are used in place of the nouns (1) Pete, (2) children,  (3)  earthworm, (4) the person speaking, and the person spoken to, respectively.

The Nominative Case

     A noun is said to be in the nominative (or subjective) case when it acts as the subject of a verb, as a predicated nominative, as a word in direct address (vocative), or as a appositive of an other word in the nominative case.

SUBJECT OF A VERB

     To determine the word or words acting as its subject ask who? or what? before the verb, The answer yields the subject. The answer yields the subject.

     The nations are as a drop of a bucket. What are as a drop of a bucket? The nations-subject.

     How beautiful upon the mountains are his feet.

     Here the subject does not precede the verb, as normally it does. Nevertheless, the method of finding the subject remains the same. What are beautiful: feet-subject.

     A bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking flax shall he not quench.

     There are two verbs in the preceding sentence; shall break and shall quenches, the subject of each, is located by asking who? before the relevant verb.

PREDICATE NOMINATIVE

     After the copula  or linking verb (a verb that expresses a state of being rather than an actions and acts as a king of equal sign linking subject and predicate) the nominative case is used. The most common of the linking verbs is be ( is, was, will be, have been, had been, ect.); but become, seem, appear, prove, look,  and about fifty other verbs may be used as linking verb.

     Note in the following examples how the predicate nominative (boldened) serves to define or explain the subject. 

     God is one.

     The Bible is a little-known Book.

     The Bible has become a little known book. We shall have been friends.

DIRECT ADDRESS

     A noun is said to be an appositive of another noun, or in appositive with another noun.  when it identifies the same person or object under another name.  A noun is in the nominative case if it is in apposition with another noun in the nominative case.

     Tom, the widow's son, raised pigs. Mary, a gardener, planted vegetables.

POSSESSIVE CASE

          

     A noun is in the possessive (also called genitive) case when it adds (apostrophe s) or simply the apostrophe to Indicated ownership (possession), source or origin (genesis),  manufacture or authorship, association or connection, and similar relationships.

USES OF THE POSSESSIVE

     Ownership: Marco's millions, Edward's eye.

     Source of Origin: God's country, mother's son.

     Manufacture or authorship: John son's baby lotion.

     Association, connection, attribute or duration:  a woman's work, a month's delay at sword's point.

FORMATION OF THE POSSESSIVE

     To form the possessive singular, add apostrophe s to the simple (nominative) form of the noun.

     child's play                       Dickens' novels                    woman's work

     To form the possessive plural, add only the apostrophe when the simple (nominative) plural form of the noun end in s, but and apostrophe s when the simple plural does not end in s.

                     Plural Ending in s                                         Plural Not Ending in s

                        horses's tails                                                      children's play

                       devils' delights                                                    people's voices

                       ladies' day                                                         freshmen's folly

     NOTE: The methods of forming the possessive case described and illustrated in the foregoing paragraphs have gained wide acceptance; they are valid as any and far more lucid than most, Unfortunately, other systems are in vogue.

     To form the plural of a group of words containing a single idea (group genitive) and apostrophe s to the last word.

     brother-in-law's virtues

     The Y.M.C.A.'s program

     In formal usage, inanimate objects do not take the possessive case, except for some constructions that have long been in the language.

     pages of a book (rather than a book's pages)

     principles of grammar (rather than grammar's principles)

     leaves of a tree (rather than a tree's leaves)

      BUT:

                goodness' sake                          day's march

                hair's breadth                            earth's surface

Gender and Denoting Gender Nouns

     Gender. In English nouns, gender indicates sex or the absence of sex. Four genders are distinguished:

     1. Masculine Gender:  male human beings or animals.
         boy, father, Joseph, bull, cock, stallion.

     2. Feminine Gender: female human beings or animals.
         girl, mother, Josephine, cow, hen, mare.

     3. Neuter Gender: objects without flower, fire, furnace.
     (NOTE: children and animals are sometimes spoken of as Neuter: The baby cries because it is bored.
       The dog barks because it can't speak.

     4. Common Gender: human beings or animals that may belong to either sex.
        cousin, parent, child, fish, bird.

     DENOTING GENDER.  Gender in nouns may be indicated in three ways: by a different word, by a changed termination, and by an added word.

 by a different word.

                        MASCULINE                                          FEMININE
                              buck                                                          doe
                              bull                                                            cow
                              cock                                                          hen
                              colt                                                            filly
                              lord                                                           lady
 
  by a changed termination

                        MASCULINE                                          FEMININE
                             actor                                                         actress
                             baron                                                        baroness
                             god                                                           goddess
                             hero                                                          heroine
                             widower                                                   window

  by an added word.

                       MASCULINE                                           FEMININE
                         billy goat                                                     nanny goat
                         bridegroom                                                 bride
                         landlord                                                      landlady

     PERSONIFICATION. Sometimes object on forces, normally of neuter gender, are personified - regardless as persons; consequently, they are endowed with masculine or feminine gender.
     Crops fail at times, but Death always reaps his harvest.
     Then the bully came in, his hand upon his knife.
     Fame smiled, displaying her false teeth.
     (NOTE: Personifications are often capitalized.)
     CASE. In English nouns, case refers to the change in form that shows the grammatical relationship of nouns to other words in the sentence.
     Whether a noun initiates an action or receives it, the form remains constant (that is, the spelling of the noun does change)"
     John threw the bull.
     The bull threw John.
     The noun changes its form (or spelling) only when it is used to show possession:
     John's cape eluded the bull's horns. Therefore, some grammarians insist that English nouns have two cases only: the common case and the possessive case. However, though the principle is valid, it creates as many difficulties as it solves, since it complicates nomenclature. Throughout this book, consequently, the traditional three cases of nouns are recognized.

The Plural Number

     a. Regularly, the plural of nouns is formed by adding -s to the singular: lands, lovers, books, battles.
     b. Singular nouns ending in -s, -x, -z, -sh, or -ch formed the plural by adding -es: kisses, misses; 
         taxes, waxes, mazes, blazes, dishes, wishes; churches, birches.

     NOTE: The ending -s, is added when the plural has no more syllables than the singular; the ending -es is  added when the plural has one more syllable than the singular. Thus the singular book and the plural books alike have one syllable; therefore, -s only is to be added in forming the plural. But singular kiss has one syllable and plural kisses has two syllables; therefore, -es is to be added in forming the plural. As a cue to spelling, pronounce the singular and plural of the noun.

     c. Singular nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant form the plural by changing the -y to -i and adding-es: fly - flies; vanity - vanities; soliloquy - soliloquies.

     (NOTE: Singular nouns ending in -y preceded by a vowel form the plural by adding -s: day - days; chimney - chimneys; monkey - monkeys.)

     d. Singular nouns ending in -o preceded by a consonant general form the plural by adding es: hero - heroes; Negro - Negroes; potato - potatoes.  (But there are many exceptions to the generalization: solo - solos; halo - halos; piano - planos.)

      e. Singular nouns ending in -o preceded by a vowel form the plural by adding -s: seraglio - seraglios; curio - curios; cuckoo - cuckoos.

       f. Singular nouns ending in -f or fe generally form the plural by changing the f to v and adding es: thief - thieves; calf-calves; self-selves; wife - wives; life - lives; knife - knives (But there are many exceptions to the generalization; grief - griefs; turf - turfs; cliff - cliffs; fife - fifes; safe - safes; trife - strifes.)

    g. Eight nouns form their plural by mutation - by changing an inside vowel:  man - men; woman - women; tooth-teeth; foot-feet; mouse - mice; dormouse - dormouse; louse - lice; goose -geese.

     h. Four  nouns form their plural by adding -en or -ne, ox - oxen; cone - kine; child - children; brother - brethren. (The u  of soliloquy has the sound of the consonant w and so does not violate the principles.)

    i. Compound nouns form their plurals by adding -s to the most important word of the compound: mother-in-law - mothers-in-law; court-martial - courts-martial; commander-in-chief - commanders-in-chief. will-o-the wisp-will-o-the-wisps; hand-me-down - hand-me-downs; good -by-good-bys.

     (NOTE: Compounds written solidly regularly add -s to form the plural; pickpocket-pickpockets; spoonful - spoonfuls; stepmother-stepmothers.)

     j. Foreign nouns, unless they have been thoroughly naturalized, from their plurals according to their native declension. There are several thousand foreign nouns in occasional English use:

                            SINGULAR                                                            PLURAL
                                                                      LATIN
                             addendum                                                               addenda
                             alumna                                                                    alumnae
                             alumnus                                                                   alumni
                             datum                                                                     data
                             erratum                                                                   errata

                                                                      GREEK
                             analysis                                                                    analyses    
                             basis                                                                        bases
                             crisis                                                                        crises  
                             Phenomenon                                                            Phenomena
                             Thesis                                                                      Theses

                                                                     FRENCH

                             bandeau                                                                bandeaux
                             Monsieur                                                              Messieurs

The Noun

     NOUN. The noun names some person, place, thing, quality, state or action.

     COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS

     A common noun is a general name, common  to all persons and a proper noun is a particular name, denoting a person or thing different from every other.

                                 Common Noun                                Proper Noun
                                          men                                          Victor Wood
                                          City                                          Quezon City
                                          hill                                           Chocolate Hills
                                         smith                                       Captain John Smith
                                         book                                         Tom Sawyer
                                         poem                                       "Last Farewell"

     Note: Proper nouns are always capitalized. Common nouns are capitalized only when they begin sentences.

     CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT NOUNS

      A concrete noun is the name of anything physical, anything that can be touched, seen heard, smelled or otherwise perceived by the senses.

     An  abstract noun, is the name of a quality, state, or action. It is an idea, and so may not be touched, seen heard, smelled or otherwise perceived by the senses.

             CONCRETE NOUN;
                         coward, democrat, beggar

             ABSTRACT NOUN;
                         fear, democracy, poverty


     COLLECTIVE NOUNS

     A collective noun names a group of individuals as if they were one individual. Singular in form, it is plural in meaning.


                                     July                        Flock                   Committee
                                   Family                      mob                      regiment

     The collective noun is considered either as a singular or as plural, depending on the purpose it servers.
     The committee was unanimous. (That is, the committee acted as a unit, as a single individual.)
     (That is, the committee were obviously acting as individuals, not as a unit.)

     INFLECTION. Inflection denotes the change in spelling that a word undergoes to show a change in meaning. Noun inflection, which is termed declension, shows changes in number (man, men), gender (man, woman), and case (man, man's)

     NUMBER. Number is the form of a noun that shows whether it is singular or plural -- whether it refers to one or more than one.

                         SINGULAR: girl, country, joy.
                         PLURAL:  girls, countries, joys.                               

Another Look At The Parts of Speech

     The usual grouping of the parts  of speech in the English language are: noun, pronoun, verb, ajective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.

NOUNS

     A Noun is the name of any person, place, or things. It may be proper or common. Proper nouns are the names of particular persons, places, or things, while common nouns are the names of things used by a class.

     Example of proper nouns:

     Name of particular persons -- Jose Reyes, Carmen Bañez, Gloria, Fe Hipolito Cruz, Jerry Vidal
     Name of particular places -- Bulacan, Pampanga, Masbate, Manila, Philippines, Europe.

     Names of particular things -- Mayon Volcano, Pagsanjan Falls, Sierra Madre Mountain, Lake          

                                                 Buhi, Statue of Liberty, Observatory Hill.
     Names pertaining to the deity -- God, Lord, Saviour, Creator, Jesus Christ, Jehovah, Bathala.

     Names of personified thing, Here are a few examples:
     1. "Save me a like from foolish Pride. Or impious Discontent!" --Pope.
     2. "Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee Jest and youthful Jollity, Quips, and Cranks, and wanton             
         Wiles, Nods, and Becks,  and wreathed Smiles..." --- Milton.

     Common Nouns

     Common nouns may be collective, concrete, and abstract. Collective nouns are those that denote a group or a multitude, as army, troop, family, crowd, audience, committee, hard, bevy, and flock. Concrete nouns are names of compact, tangible objects and visible things, like house, rock, book, boy, pencil, paper, box, knife, tree, and mountain. Abstract nouns are nouns expressing the qualities of concrete nouns apart from the object, as badness, patience, charity, oblivion, roughness, beauty, endurance, goodness,  and virtue.

     To these three classes of common nouns, some authorities add a fourth class, the diminutives. Here are a few examples of these nouns that express a lessening of the thing or quality: rivulet, kitten, kitchenette, gosting.

     Gender of Nouns

     Gender denotes sex. A male nouns is in the masculine gender, a female noun, in the feminine gender, and all sexless nouns are in the neuter gender. Personified objects, however, are regarded as masculine  if they denote strength, manliness, vigor; feminine, if they denote beauty, softness, kindness, and other feminine attributes. Adam, Pedro, Carlos, boy, and man are in the masculine gender. Mule, cock, and cockerel are likewise in the masculine gender. Eve, Luisa, Carmen,  and Josefa are in the feminine gender. Women, girl, stewardess, mare, pullet, and hen are in the feminine gender, Table, chair, floor and other inanimate objects  in the neuter gender. Very small animate objects are often regarded as in the neuter gender.